Baseball , competitive game of skill played with a hard
ball and bat between two teams of nine players each. Baseball is often called
the national pastime of the United States, because of its strong tradition and
great popularity. It is played throughout the world by people of all ages.
I INTRODUCTION
Baseball is one of the oldest and most popular
spectator sports. The game as it is known today developed during the early 1800s
among children and amateur players. Today, professional baseball attracts
millions of spectators to ballparks each year and entertains millions more
through radio and television broadcasts.
| II |
|
HOW BASEBALL IS
PLAYED |
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| Baseball game |
A baseball game is divided into nine periods
of play, called innings. The team that scores the most runs by the end of the
ninth inning wins the game. Play starts when a player called the pitcher throws
a ball toward the batter, a player on the opposing team. The batter tries to hit
the ball into the baseball field. Players score runs by hitting the ball and
running around a series of bases before a player in the field can put them out.
Batters and runners can be put out in a variety of ways.
Innings are divided into two halves, referred
to as the top and bottom of the inning. During the top of an inning, one team is
at bat while the other is in the field. After the team at bat has three outs the
two teams switch these roles, and the bottom of an inning begins. If the game is
tied after nine innings, the teams continue to play until one has scored more
runs at the end of an extra inning.
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| Baseball Scorecard |
The following sections describe the elements
of baseball in more detail. A knowledge of the design of the field, the use of
baseball equipment, and the role of players is crucial to an understanding of
how the game is played.
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| Baseball Field |
Baseball is played on a level field, which
usually covers about 2 acres (0.8 hectares). (The field dimensions in this
section refer to high school, college, and professional baseball. Youth baseball
competition, such as Little League, uses smaller dimensions.) The playing area
is divided into the infield and the outfield. Together, these two areas make up
fair territory. The rest of the field is called foul territory.
The infield consists of a square-shaped
plot called the diamond, which measures 90 ft (27 m) on each side. One corner of
the diamond is marked by a five-sided piece of rubber called home plate. Batters
hit the ball from a position on either side of home plate, depending on their
preference. At the three other corners of the infield—moving counterclockwise
from home plate—are first base, second base, and third base. Each base is marked
with a canvas bag.
The pitcher’s mound, a slightly raised
piece of ground, lies near the center of the infield, between home plate and
second base. A strip of rubber is nailed to the top of the mound, 60 ft 6 in
(about 18 m) from home plate. Pitchers place one foot on the rubber when they
put the ball in play.
Base lines run from home plate to first
base and from home plate to third base. Extensions of these lines, called foul
lines, run along the outer edges of the outfield. These lines divide foul and
fair territory. Base lines also extend from first to second to third base,
marking the path of a runner. The region of the outfield behind first base is
called right field, the region behind second base is called center field, and
the region behind third base is called left field. A curving fence runs along
the farthest limits of the outfield, typically about 90 to 120 m (300 to 400 ft)
away from home plate at various points.
Two covered shelters called dugouts are
located in foul territory along each base line. Players occupy the dugouts when
they are not on the field. The baseball field is also designed with a number of
markings that indicate the use of certain regions. Boxes outlined in chalk on
each side of home plate indicate where a batter may stand. Chalk boxes in foul
territory near first and third base define the position of team coaches. Similar
regions limit where pitchers may warm up during the game and where players may
prepare before batting.
Basic baseball equipment includes a hard
ball, a wooden or aluminum bat, a padded leather glove for each fielder for
catching the ball, cleated shoes, and protective helmets for batters. Catchers
wear special protective gear, including a helmet, a cagelike mask, a padded
chest protector, and shin guards.
A baseball has a cork center wrapped in
layers of rubber and string. It is covered by pieces of leather that have been
tightly stitched together. A baseball measures about 9 in (23 cm) in
circumference. Bats are usually made of aluminum or of springy wood, such as
ash. They may be no more than 2.75 in (7 cm) in diameter and no more than 42 in
(107 cm) in length. Specific rules also describe the size and construction of
gloves, spiked shoes, batting helmets, and other baseball equipment.
A baseball team fields nine players. On
the field, each player is responsible for a particular position. The pitcher
puts the ball into play by throwing it toward home plate. Each throw is called a
pitch. By holding the ball in special ways and adjusting its spin, pitchers can
throw a variety of pitches. They use these techniques, along with changing the
speed of their throw, to make it more difficult for batters to hit the ball. The
catcher receives the ball and returns it to the pitcher unless the batter hits
the ball. Catchers also defend home plate when a runner tries to score.
The first baseman, second baseman, and
third baseman are each stationed at or near a base. The shortstop stands between
second and third base. These players are responsible for fielding, or handling,
the ball when it is hit to the infield and for putting out runners as they
attempt to advance around the diamond. Three outfielders are stationed
individually in right field, center field, and left field. They are responsible
for fielding balls hit to the outfield.
While one team is in the field, the other
team takes its turn at bat, one player at a time, according to a specific order.
Batting rules vary slightly in the two major leagues of the United States. In
the National League, the pitcher is also a batter. In the American League, a
player called the designated hitter bats in place of the pitcher. Designated
hitters do not play on the field.
In organized baseball, several people help
the game run smoothly. They include managers, coaches, and umpires.
The manager is a team’s leader and is
responsible for the team’s strategy and conduct. Managers determine which
members of the team play, what positions they play, and the order in which they
bat. During the game, most managers prefer to perform their duties from the
dugout, except for occasional visits to the field to remove a pitcher or argue a
call with an umpire. Two or more coaches, positioned closer to the field, assist
the manager by communicating with the players. For example, managers may decide
what pitches should be thrown, when batters should swing at a pitch, and how
runners should move around the bases. The manager relays these decisions through
special hand signals that the coaches repeat to communicate to the players.
Umpires are responsible for interpreting
and enforcing the rules of play. They rule on the results of each play—for
example, an umpire determines when a player is out. Umpires have complete
authority over the game. They may eject from the game players, managers, or
coaches who break rules of conduct. In the major leagues, a crew of four umpires
is assigned to each game. They are stationed at home plate, along the first and
third base lines, and in the infield near second base.
In a baseball game, one team is designated
the home team and the other is the visiting team. The visiting team always bats
first, or at the top of the inning, while the home team takes the field. When a
team is at bat it is playing offense—that is, trying to score runs. Teams score
runs after their players get on base, primarily by hitting the ball, and then
continue around the bases in consecutive order and successfully cross home plate
before the third out is made. When a team is in the field it is playing defense,
or trying to put opposing players out before they can travel around the bases.
After three outs, half of the inning is over and the teams switch sides.
Throughout the game, play revolves around
the action between the pitcher and the batter. The pitcher has the first
opportunity to put the batter out. Pitchers throw the ball to the batter,
usually attempting to pass it through the strike zone, an area directly over
home plate and roughly between the batter’s armpits and knees. Pitches thrown
into this area that the batter does not hit are called strikes. Strikes also
include (1) pitches that the batter swings at but does not hit and (2) the first
two times that a batter hits the ball into foul territory. (Subsequent fouls do
not count as strikes or balls.) After three strikes, a batter is out. Pitches
outside of the strike zone that the batter does not swing at are called balls.
If a pitcher throws four balls, the batter proceeds to first base. This is
called a base on balls or a walk. An umpire determines whether pitches are
strikes or balls.
| G |
|
Getting on Base and
Running |
If a batter gets on base by hitting the
ball so that fielders cannot successfully field it, the batter has recorded a
base hit. On a base hit, the runner tries to advance as many bases as possible
without being put out. A base hit in which a batter gets to first base is called
a single; one in which the batter gets to second base is called a double; and
one in which the batter gets to third base is called a triple.
Batters can reach first base in several
ways, in addition to base hits and walks. The most common are (1) when the
batter is hit by a pitched ball; (2) when a fielder mishandles a ball hit in
fair territory and the batter reaches base safely as a result of the fielding
mistake, known as an error; (3) when the catcher interferes with the batter’s
attempt to swing at the pitch; and (4) when the catcher drops a third strike and
the batter reaches first base before a fielder tags the base or the batter.
Batters who reach base safely are referred
to as base runners. Base runners can proceed to the next base when a subsequent
batter hits the ball. If a batted ball is caught on a fly, the runner may
advance, but may only leave the current base after the catch is made. Subsequent
batters sometimes sacrifice their chance for getting a base hit in order to
advance the runner. One way to do this is to hit a sacrifice fly ball. Another
way is to bunt—that is, simply hold the bat out toward a pitch rather than swing
the bat, so that when the ball is hit, it rolls slowly toward the infield.
Ordinarily, in a sacrifice, the batter is put out, and the runner reaches the
next base safely.
Runners also may advance by stealing a
base. They may steal only under certain circumstances, such as when the pitcher
is delivering a pitch or when the catcher drops the ball. To prevent steals,
fielders must tag the runners by touching them with the ball.
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| Double Play |
If the batter hits the ball, fielders have
opportunities to prevent the batter from reaching a base safely, known as
putting the batter out. For example, a batter is ruled out if a fielder catches
a batted ball before it hits the ground, in foul or fair territory. A batter is
also out if a fielder holding the ball tags the batter or tags first base before
the batter can reach it. Fielders often retrieve the ball from where it is hit
and throw it to the player covering first base, who tags the base. If the batter
reaches first base safely, however, fielders have additional opportunities to
put players out and prevent a run. If a runner occupies a base to which a
subsequent batter or runner must advance, runners are forced to move to the next
base. In a force, fielders can put the runner out by tagging the base before the
runner reaches it. If there is no force—that is, if there is no runner
approaching from the preceding base—fielders must tag the runner out.
If fielders put two runners out in one
play, it is called a double play. If they put three runners out in one play, it
is called a triple play. A typical double play occurs when the batter hits the
ball on the ground in the infield. As the runner tries to advance from first
base to second base, an infielder gets the ball, steps on second base to force
out the base runner, and quickly throws the ball to the player covering first
base to put out the batter. A triple play is relatively rare in baseball.
A runner scores by successfully moving
around all the bases and crossing home plate without being put out. Scoring is
usually the result of a combination of base hits, walks, or sacrifices; skillful
baserunning; or errors by the defensive team. Sometimes the batter circles the
bases on one hit. This is known as a home run. A batter usually scores a home
run by hitting the ball over the outfield fence. On rare occasions, however, the
batter may round all four bases without hitting the ball over the fence. This
play is known as an inside-the-park home run. If there are base runners at the
time the home run is hit, those players also round the bases and score. If there
are base runners on all three bases when the batter hits a home run, the team at
bat scores four runs, and the play is called a grand slam.
Baseball is played in organized leagues
throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, and other countries. An organized
league can be defined as a group of teams that play one another regularly and
adhere to an official set of rules. In professional baseball, players receive
payment for their play. Professional baseball includes the major leagues and the
minor leagues. Amateur baseball, in which players are not paid, includes most
other leagues, such as Little League, high school, and university competition as
well as various community leagues. Softball, a sport similar to baseball, is
also played in leagues throughout the United States.
Major league baseball represents the
highest level of baseball competition in North America. It includes teams from
the United States and Canada. The major leagues are divided into the National
League (NL) and the American League (AL). The teams of each league are grouped
into three divisions within their league. In both the NL and AL, the divisions
are called the East Division, the Central Division, and the West Division.
In the National League, the East Division
consists of the Atlanta Braves, the Florida Marlins, the New York Mets, the
Philadelphia Phillies, and the Washington Nationals. The Central Division
consists of the Chicago Cubs, the Cincinnati Reds, the Houston Astros, the
Milwaukee Brewers, the Pittsburgh Pirates, and the St. Louis Cardinals. The West
Division consists of the Arizona Diamondbacks, the Colorado Rockies, the Los
Angeles Dodgers, the San Diego Padres, and the San Francisco Giants.
In the American League, the East Division
consists of the Baltimore Orioles, the Boston Red Sox, the New York Yankees, the
Tampa Bay Devil Rays, and the Toronto Blue Jays. The Central Division consists
of the Chicago White Sox, the Cleveland Indians, the Detroit Tigers, the Kansas
City Royals, and the Minnesota Twins. The West Division consists of the Los
Angeles Angels, the Oakland Athletics, the Seattle Mariners, and the Texas
Rangers.
| B |
|
The Major League
Season |
The major league baseball season lasts
from April (or late March) to October and includes the regular season, the
playoffs, and the World Series. Teams play 162 games during the regular season.
The team with the most victories in each division becomes the division winner
and earns the right to compete in the playoffs. The team with the best record in
each league after the division winners also is included in the playoffs as a
wild-card team.
Each league holds a separate playoff,
featuring their three division winners and the wild-card team. These teams are
paired and face each other in a series of games. The teams that win the most
games in a series earn the right to move on to the next round of playoffs. The
final series in the league playoffs determines which team wins the pennant, or
championship, of their league. The NL and AL pennant winners meet in the World
Series, and the winner of this series becomes the major league world
champion.
The major leagues also hold an annual
competition called the All-Star Game, which matches a team of NL players against
a team of AL players. Baseball fans select the starting players in the game. It
takes place during the All-Star break, a period in the middle of the regular
season during which teams temporarily rest from competition.
Every major league baseball team is part
of a baseball club, which includes the team, the owner, and the team management.
The owner may be an individual, a group, or a corporation. Club owners provide
the money that a team needs to operate. They work with the team management to
organize activities such as running a stadium and selling tickets and
concessions.
Club owners and management recruit
players for the team. The complicated system of recruitment and payment of
players is controlled by strict league rules, which involve the number of
players clubs may have and the contracts, or agreements, that clubs and players
sign. A union, called the Major League Players Association, advises players in
these matters.
A minor league is any association of
professional baseball clubs apart from the major leagues that is recognized by
the official Minor League Baseball association. This organization ranks leagues
into various classes, depending on the players’ level of skill. Ranked from the
lowest level of skill to the highest, these include Rookie, Class A, Class AA,
and Class AAA.
Many major league baseball clubs own or
operate minor league teams, known as farm teams. Major league clubs use these
teams to give players the opportunity to develop their skills in minor league
competition. Exceptional players on farm teams may then be brought up to play on
the major league team. Farm teams also enable major league clubs to keep
additional talented players whom they may trade for players from other major
league teams. Minor League Baseball has helped form agreements between the
management of minor and major league teams.
Amateur baseball is the oldest form of
organized baseball. The first professional teams began as amateur baseball
clubs. Today many youth groups, high schools, universities, branches of the
military, businesses, and social groups, such as the Young Men’s Christian
Association (YMCA), continue to sponsor amateur baseball teams and leagues. Many
of the greatest professional baseball players began their careers in amateur
baseball before signing with professional teams.
The most common amateur leagues include
those organized for young people. Little League, established in 1939, is an
organization that operates baseball programs in communities of many countries.
Boys and girls from 5 to 18 years old can play Little League. Each year an
annual Little League World Series is held in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, where
Little League was founded.
Many high schools and universities have
baseball teams made up of student players. They usually play against other teams
in their athletic conference during the spring. Professional baseball clubs
often recruit outstanding players from high schools, colleges, or
universities.
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| Little League |
During the late 1800s and early 1900s,
businesses commonly organized amateur teams made up of their employees. These
teams played in leagues that were sometimes called industrial leagues. Teams
sometimes hired former professional players to improve their squads, and large
crowds attended some of the best industrial league baseball games. Today
softball has largely replaced baseball as a favorite athletic competition among
businesses.
| IV |
|
THE HISTORY OF
BASEBALL |
Although it is clear that modern baseball
developed in North America, the exact origin of the game is difficult to
determine. Most scholars believe that baseball evolved from a variety of similar
games that have been played for centuries. A popular legend claims that Abner
Doubleday, who was a Union officer during the American Civil War (1861-1865),
invented baseball in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839. But there is little support
for this story.
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| Boston Baseball Club |
There is evidence that people played games
involving a stick and a ball since the early days of civilization. Ancient
cultures in Persia, Egypt, and Greece played stick-and-ball games for recreation
and as part of certain ceremonies. Games of this type had spread throughout
Europe by the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) and became popular in a
variety of forms. Europeans brought stick-and-ball games to the American
colonies as early as the 1600s. Until the late 1700s, however, they were widely
considered children’s games.
By the early 1800s, a variety of
stick-and-ball games had become popular in North America. Most of these games
originated in England. Many people in northeastern cities such as Boston, New
York, and Philadelphia played cricket, a traditional game of English
aristocrats. But an English game called rounders, which was eventually played in
rural and urban communities throughout North America, most closely resembled
modern baseball.
Rounders called for a batter to strike a
ball and run around bases without being put out. Balls that were caught on the
fly, or in some cases after one bounce, were commonly outs. Rounders also
involved the practice of plugging, soaking, or stinging, in which fielders could
put runners out by throwing the ball at them as they ran between bases. The
rules of rounders varied widely from place to place, and people used various
names to describe it, including town ball, one o’ cat, and base
ball (which was eventually shortened to baseball).
By the 1820s and 1830s baseball had become
a common form of recreation, played according to local customs throughout
Northeastern America. Early forms of baseball were played in cities such as New
York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Rochester as well as in many rural towns and
villages. On June 4, 1838, a group of residents gathered in Beachville, Ontario,
to play a local version of baseball with five bases, a game believed to be the
first ever played in Canada. People in some communities formed clubs especially
to play the game. But elements of rounders, such as plugging the runner,
remained common, and baseball lacked official rules or formal organization.
The most important early organized
baseball club was formed in 1845 by a group of young men in New York City. This
group, led by Alexander Cartwright and later by Dr. Daniel L. Adams, called
their club the Knickerbocker Base Ball Club. The Knickerbockers developed a set
of 20 rules—14 governing play and 6 relating to administration—that became the
foundation of modern baseball. These rules, first published in 1845, defined the
playing field with a home plate and three additional bases set apart at specific
distances. They also abolished plugging and replaced it with the practice of
tagging runners or forcing them out at a base.
The Knickerbockers also established foul
lines, which became one of the most significant developments in baseball. In
previous versions of the game, the ball could be struck in any direction. By
drawing foul lines from home plate, the Knickerbockers added focus to the game.
Perhaps more significantly, they created an area close to the action where
spectators could gather and watch the game without interfering. Although there
were few baseball spectators in the early days of the Knickerbockers, the
creation of foul territory established an area where onlookers might safely
gather to watch the game. Eventually, as the Knickerbockers’ style of play
became popular, baseball games drew increasing public attention.
On June 19, 1846, the Knickerbockers
played in what is widely considered the first modern baseball game. They met
another organized baseball team called the New York Club in what is now Hoboken,
New Jersey, and played a complete game according to the Knickerbocker rules. The
Knickerbockers lost, 23-1.
The Knickerbocker style of play spread
rapidly during the 1850s, when baseball clubs formed throughout New York City
and adopted the new rules. By the late 1850s the game’s popularity had spread
beyond the city, and it became known as the New York Game. By the mid-1850s
crowds of several thousand were not uncommon at baseball games in the New York
City area.
The New York Game spread more rapidly
during the Civil War as Union soldiers introduced the game in places where they
traveled. By the end of the war in 1865, the game had become the most popular
variety of baseball throughout the country. Soon after, the name New York Game
disappeared—it became simply baseball.
As baseball’s popularity grew, many people
began to see its potential for financial profit. By the 1850s landowners were
regularly maintaining baseball parks to rent to baseball clubs. Baseball teams
customarily collected donations from fans to cover costs. The first fully
enclosed baseball park, the Union Grounds in Brooklyn, was completed in 1862.
This style of park soon became popular because owners could sell food and drink
to spectators without competition from street vendors.
The National Association of Base Ball
Players (NABBP), an organization formed in 1858, prohibited members from taking
payment for playing baseball. During the early 1860s ballpark owners earned
large profits while the amateur ball players provided free entertainment.
Pressure from players eventually forced the NABBP to change its policy in 1868
and allow players to accept money. This ruling marked the birth of professional
baseball.
The first professional baseball team, the
Cincinnati Red Stockings, began play in 1869. They traveled the country that
year, playing before thousands of fans and winning 60 games without a loss. Soon
baseball’s promoters began forming professional baseball clubs in cities across
the Northeastern and Midwestern United States. By 1870 professional players
outnumbered amateurs in the NABBP and the remaining amateurs withdrew. In 1871
the organization became the National Association of Professional Base Ball
Players.
The new National Association represented
players from ten clubs. In effect, these clubs made up the first professional
baseball league. They introduced the practice of league competition and
concluded their regular season with a pennant race and championship. However,
the National Association suffered from poor management and by 1876 it had folded
completely.
In 1876 representatives of eight baseball
clubs, led by Chicago White Stockings officials William Hulbert and Albert
Spalding, sought to replace the National Association with a more structured
organization. They created the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs,
known as the National League, which consisted of teams from Boston,
Massachusetts; Chicago, Illinois; Cincinnati, Ohio; Hartford, Connecticut;
Louisville, Kentucky; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; New York City; and St. Louis,
Missouri. They adopted a constitution that regulated club activities, required
players to honor their contracts, and banned gambling completely.
A rival league, the American Association,
was founded in 1882. American Association clubs charged lower admission prices
and, unlike National League teams, played on Sundays and allowed the sale of
liquor. Tension between the two leagues increased as they competed for the best
players. In 1883 the leagues formed an agreement that established exhibition
games between the leagues’ best teams following the regular season. In addition,
the American Association agreed to adopt the National League’s reserve clause,
which required players to obtain permission from their club’s owner before
joining another club.
Attendance at baseball games grew during
the late 1880s, as clubs built larger ballparks and the quality of play
improved. The leagues added new rules, which included permitting the overhand
pitch. Previously, pitchers were required to use an underhand or sidearm
delivery. The use of baseball gloves gained general acceptance and new standards
for the design of balls and bats were adopted. John Montgomery Ward, captain of
the New York Giants, founded the first players’ union, the Brotherhood of
Professional Base Ball Players, in 1885.
The American Association folded after the
1891 season and its four best teams joined the National League, which remained
the only major league through the end of the 1800s. Public interest in baseball
decreased during this period, and many clubs experienced financial
difficulty.
Baseball entered a new era in 1901,
however, when the American League opened its first season. It was founded by Ban
Johnson, president of the Western League, a successful minor league organization
that he renamed the American League. In 1903 the National League agreed to
recognize the American League, and championship teams from each league met in
the first World Series.